Examination of pseudoscientific popular theories of "race" and gender that developed in Germany and elsewhere in Europe in the nineteenth century, and how these affected the lives of millions and shaped current thinking about "racial" and gender differences.

The history of Spain from its beginnings in the stone age through the great social and economic upheavals of the twentieth century.

Examines how freedom of conscience and religion crystallized in western and central Europe, both as a pragmatic practice and as a matter of principle.

Subjects may include trends toward secularization, the emancipation of European Jewry, the emergence of American Jewry, the Holocaust, the establishment of the State of Israel, and the Arab-Israeli conflict.